Relación triglicéridos/colesterol de la lipoproteína de alta densidad como indicador de riesgo cardiometabólico en niños y adolescentes de la ciudad de Mérida, Venezuela / Triglycerides/High density lipoprotein cholesterol ratio as a cardiometabolic risk marker in children and adolescents from Mérida city, Venezuela

Objetivo: Determinar el comportamiento de la relación triglicéridos/colesterol HDL (TG/cHDL) como indicador de riesgo cardiometabólico en niños y adolescentes escolarizados de la ciudad de Mérida. Métodos: Se estudió a 1.292 niños y adolescentes entre 7 y 18 años de edad, de instituciones educativas del Municipio Libertador. Se registraron medidas antropométricas y la presión arterial. Se determinaron glucemia, insulina y lípidos en ayunas. Se calcularon la relación TG/cHDL y los índices HOMA-IR y QUICKI. Se realizó la clasificación de individuos con riesgo y sin riesgo cardiometabólico a partir de la presencia o no de 2 o más factores de riesgo. Se determinaron puntos de corte de la relación TG/cHDL a través de la construcción de curvas operador receptor (COR). Resultados: La relación TG/cHDL presentó medias significativamente superiores en individuos púberes (2,2 ± 1,7) en comparación con prepúberes (1,8 ± 1,5; p = 0,001), sin diferencias según el género. El 14,7% (n = 192) de los participantes presentaba 2 o más factores de riesgo y los valores de la relación TG/cHDL fueron significativamente mayores en comparación con aquellos sin riesgo (3,5 ± 2,9 frente a 1,6 ± 0,8 en prepúberes y 4,1 ± 3,5 frente a 1,8 ± 0,9 en púberes; p = 0,0001). De acuerdo con el riesgo cardiometabólico, se obtuvieron puntos de corte para la relación TG/cHDL de 1,8 y 2,5 en prepúberes y púberes, respectivamente. Estos puntos de corte muestran riesgos (odds ratios) superiores a 2,5 para alteraciones como síndrome metabólico, colesterol no HDL elevado, obesidad abdominal y HOMA-IR elevado. Conclusión: En esta muestra de niños y adolescentes, la relación TG/cHDL elevada demostró ser un buen marcador para predecir riesgo cardiometabólico (AU)

Objective: To determine the behavior of the triglycerides/HDL-cholesterol ratio (TG/HDL) as a cardiometabolic risk marker in children and adolescents from Mérida, Venezuela. Methods: A total of 1292 children and adolescents aged 7-18 years who attended educational institutions in the Libertador Municipality were enrolled into this study. Anthropometric measurements and blood pressure values were recorded. Fasting blood glucose, insulin and lipid levels were measured. The TG/HDL ratio, HOMA-IR, and QUICKI indexes were calculated. Subjects were categorized as with and without cardiometabolic risk based on the presence or absence of 2or more risk factors. Cut-off points for the TG/HDL ratio were determined by constructing ROC curves. Results: Significantly higher mean TG/HDL ratios were found in pubertal (2.2 ± 1.7) as compared to prepubertal subjects (1.8 ± 1.5; P=.001), with no sex differences. Two or more risk factors were found in 14.7% (n=192) of the participants, in whom TG/HDL ratios were significantly higher as compared to those with no risk (3.5±2.9 versus 1.6±0.8 in prepubertal and 4.1 ± 3.5 versus 1.8 ± 0.9 in pubertal subjects; P=.0001). According to cardiometabolic risk, cut-off points for the TG/HDL ratio of 1.8 and 2.5 were found for prepubertal and pubertal children respectively. These cut-off points showed risks (odds ratio) higher than 2.5 for conditions such as metabolic syndrome, elevated non-HDL-C, abdominal obesity, and elevated HOMA-IR. Conclusion: In this sample of children and adolescents, an elevated TG/HDLc ratio was found to be a good marker for predicting cardiometabolic risk (AU)

Triglycerides/High density lipoprotein cholesterol ratio as a cardiometabolic risk marker in children and adolescents from Mérida city, Venezuela. / Relación triglicéridos/colesterol de la lipoproteína de alta densidad como indicador de riesgo cardiometabólico en niños y adolescentes de la ciudad de Mérida, Venezuela.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the behavior of the triglycerides/HDL-cholesterol ratio (TG/HDL) as a cardiometabolic risk marker in children and adolescents from Mérida, Venezuela. METHODS: A total of 1292 children and adolescents aged 7-18 years who attended educational institutions in the Libertador Municipality were enrolled into this study. Anthropometric measurements and blood pressure values were recorded. Fasting blood glucose, insulin and lipid levels were measured. The TG/HDL ratio, HOMA-IR, and QUICKI indexes were calculated. Subjects were categorized as with and without cardiometabolic risk based on the presence or absence of 2or more risk factors. Cut-off points for the TG/HDL ratio were determined by constructing ROC curves. RESULTS: Significantly higher mean TG/HDL ratios were found in pubertal (2.2 ± 1.7) as compared to prepubertal subjects (1.8 ± 1.5; P=.001), with no sex differences. Two or more risk factors were found in 14.7% (n=192) of the participants, in whom TG/HDL ratios were significantly higher as compared to those with no risk (3.5±2.9 versus 1.6±0.8 in prepubertal and 4.1 ± 3.5 versus 1.8 ± 0.9 in pubertal subjects; P=.0001). According to cardiometabolic risk, cut-off points for the TG/HDL ratio of 1.8 and 2.5 were found for prepubertal and pubertal children respectively. These cut-off points showed risks (odds ratio) higher than 2.5 for conditions such as metabolic syndrome, elevated non-HDL-C, abdominal obesity, and elevated HOMA-IR. CONCLUSION: In this sample of children and adolescents, an elevated TG/HDLc ratio was found to be a good marker for predicting cardiometabolic risk.

TRANSEXUALIDAD Y SÍNDROME DE KLINEFELTER. ¿CARIOTIPO, IMPRESCINDIBLE EN ELPROTOCOLO DE REASIGNACIÓN DE SEXO? A PROPÓSITO DE UN CASO / TRANSEXUALITY AND KLINEFELTER SYNDROME. CARIOTIPO, IMPRESCINDIBLE IN THE PROTOCOL OF REASIGNATION OF SEX? ABOUT A CASE

Objetivo: Presentar un caso de transexualidad y síndrome de Klinefelter, asociación infrecuente. Caso Clínico: Paciente masculino de 32 años de edad, quien refiere disconfort con su sexo fenotípico y orientación conductual hacia patrón sexual femenino desde la infancia temprana, conocido y tratado por Psiquiatría. Acudió a nuestra consulta ocho años atrás, con modales y apariencia femenina, para manejo farmacológico. Se indicó tratamiento con terapia estrogénica y análogos de GnRH (Triptorelina 11,25 mg cada tres meses). Antecedentes personales: Ginecomastia desde la infancia. Diagnóstico genético de síndrome de Klinefelter (46XY/47XXY). Examen físico: Peso 71,5 kg, Talla: 1,66 m, IMC: 26 kg/m2, desproporción de segmentos corporales con predominio del inferior, ginecomastia grado II, genitales con hipoplasia escrotal, volumen testicular 10 cc ambos. Paciente quien inicia transición de hombre a mujer hace más de 10 años, actualmente integrado a la sociedad en su rol de género femenino, en espera de reasignación de sexo definitiva. Conclusión: La transexualidad es la condición según la cual una persona nace con un sexo específico (genético, gonadal, genital y fenotípico) pero se siente y se percibe del sexo opuesto. Como consecuencia busca adecuar su cuerpo y cambiar su apariencia física, a través de métodos farmacológicos y quirúrgicos. En nuestro caso el paciente es portador de una anomalía cromósomica que conduce a un fallo testicular primario, que en la mayoría de los casos no se asocia con trastornos de identidad de género, según lo revisado en la literatura. A pesar de que el análisis cromosómico no es considerado transcendental en el manejo de la reasignación de sexo, se impone como exploración complementaria para descartar la asociación de alteraciones hormonales que pudieran condicionar algún tipo de trastorno conductual y otras complicaciones.

Objective: To present a case of transsexuality and Klinefelter syndrome, an uncommon association. Case Report: A 32-year-old male patient, who reported discomfort with his phenotype sex and behavioral orientation towards female sexual pattern from early childhood, known and treated by Psychiatry. She came to our practice eight years ago, with manners and feminine appearance, for pharmacological management. Treatment with estrogen therapy and GnRH analogues (Triptorelin 11.25 mg every three months) was indicated. Personal history: Gynecomastia since infancy. Genetic diagnosis of Klinefelter syndrome (46XY/47XXY). Physical examination: Weight 71.5 kg, Height: 1.66 m, BMI: 26 kg/m2, disproportion of body segments with predominance of inferior, gynecomastia grade II, genitalia with scrotal hypoplasia, testicular volume 10 cc both. Patient who initiates transition from man to woman more than 10 years ago, currently integrated into society in her role of female gender, awaiting definitive reassignment of sex. Conclusions: Transsexuality is the condition according to which a person is born with a specific sex but feels and is perceived of the opposite sex. As a consequence he seeks to adapt his body and change his physical appearance, through pharmacological and surgical methods. In our case, the patient has a chromosomal anomaly leading to a primary testicular failure, which in most cases is not associated with gender identity disorders, as reviewed in the literature. Although the chromosomal analysis is not considered transcendental in the management of the sex reassignment, it is imposed as complementary exploration to rule out the association of hormonal alterations that could condition some type of behavioral disorder and other complications.

Sobrepeso-obesidad y factores de riesgo cardiometabólico en niños y adolescentes de la ciudad de Mérida, Venezuela / Overweight-obesity and cardiometabolic risk factors in adolescents from Merida city, Venezuela

Con el objetivo de establecer la frecuencia de sobrepeso-obesidad y factores de riesgo cardiometabólico (FRC) (sedentarismo, dislipidemia, elevación de presión arterial y alteración de carbohidratos), en niños y adolescentes de la ciudad de Mérida, Venezuela, se estudiaron 922 niños y adolescentes entre 9 y 18 años de edad, procedentes de diferentes instituciones educativas. Se tomaron medidas antropométricas y presión arterial; se calculó el índice de masa corporal. En ayunas, se midieron niveles de glucemia, insulina y lípidos, y posterior a 2h de sobrecarga de glucosa, se midieron glucemia e insulina. Se calculó el índice HOMA-IR. Se observó sedentarismo en 49,3% de los participantes, dislipidemia en 28,3%, sobrepeso-obesidad en 17,4% (7,9% obesidad y 9,5% sobrepeso), pre-hipertensión e hipertensión arterial (Pre-HTA/HTA) en 8,8%, prediabetes en 4%, resistencia a la insulina en 3,9% y síndrome metabólico (SM) en 2,5%. Hubo una significativa mayor frecuencia de sedentarismo en el sexo femenino y de SM en el masculino. Los FRC estuvieron asociados al sobrepeso-obesidad, los más frecuentes fueron la dislipidemia 50,3% vs 23,7% en el grupo con IMC normal-bajo y la Pre-HTA/HTA 23,8% vs 5,7% (p=0,0001 para ambos). En el grupo sobrepeso-obesidad, el riesgo de Pre-HTA/HTA fue 5,14 veces mayor que en el de IMC normal-bajo, el riesgo de dislipidemia fue 3,26 y el de SM fue 119,56 veces mayor (p=0,0001). Se concluye que la frecuencia de sobrepeso y obesidad en Mérida ha aumentado en el tiempo, y en vista de la clara asociación con FRC, se recomienda impartir educación poblacional e individual para mejorar el estado nutricional.

To establish the prevalence of overweight-obesity and cardiometabolic risk factors (CRF) (sedentary lifestyle, dyslipidemia, hypertension and impaired carbohydrate metabolism) in children and adolescents in the city of Mérida, Venezuela, we studied 922 children and adolescents from 9 to 18 years of age, from different educational institutions. Anthropometric measurements and arterial blood pressure were recorded. Body mass index was calculated. Fasting blood glucose, insulin and lipids levels, and glucose and insulin 2 h post-load glucose were measured. HOMA-IR was calculated. In order of frequency, sedentary lifestyle was observed in 49.3% of participants, dyslipidemia in 28.3%, overweight-obesity in 17.4% (7.9% obesity and 9.5% overweight), pre-hypertension and hypertension (PreHT/HT) in 8.8%, prediabetes in 4%, insulin resistance in 3.9% and metabolic syndrome (MS) in 2.5%. CRF’s were associated with overweight-obesity, being the most common, dyslipidemia (50.3% vs 23.7% in normal weight) and PreHT/HT (23.8% vs 5.7%; p=0.0001 for both). The risk of PreHT/HT, dyslipidemia, and MS were 5.14, 3.26 and 119.56 times more in overweight-obesity, than in low-normal weight respectively (p=0.0001 for all). In conclusion, the frequency of overweight and obesity in Mérida has increased over time. Given its clear association with CRF, it is recommended to provide the appropriated education to improve nutritional status.

Tratamiento con cirugía bariátrica en el paciente obeso: Guías clínicas del Servicio de Endocrinología del Instituto Autónomo Hospital Universitario de Los Andes

La incidencia de obesidad ha incrementado en forma significativa, constituyendo en la actualidad un grave problema de salud pública por su asociación frecuente con condiciones médicas tales como diabetes mellitus, hipertensión arterial sistémica y dislipidemias, que constituyen factores de riesgo cardiovascular. Los resultados de las intervenciones terapéuticas tradicionales (dieta, actividad física y tratamiento farmacológico), no han resultado exitosos en alcanzar y mantener la pérdida de peso, lo cual ha generado, en las últimas décadas, el desarrollo de otras modalidades terapéuticas con mejores tasas de respuesta como la cirugía bariátrica. Se requiere una adecuada selección de los posibles candidatos para cirugía bariátrica y conocimiento del manejo post-operatorio a corto y largo plazo.

The incidence of obesity has increased significantly, currently constituting a serious public health problem because of its frequent association with medical conditions such as diabetes mellitus, hypertension and dyslipidemia, which are cardiovascular risk factors. The results of traditional therapeutic interventions (diet, physical activity and drug treatment), have not been successful in achieving and maintaining weight loss, which has generated in recent decades the development of other therapeutic modalities with better response rates as bariatric surgery. Proper selection of potential candidates for bariatric surgery and post-operative knowledge of short and long-term management is required.

Overweight-obesity and cardiometabolic risk factors in adolescents from Merida city, Venezuela. / Sobrepeso-obesidad y factores de riesgo cardiometabólico en niños y adolescentes de la ciudad de Mérida, Venezuela.

To establish the prevalence of overweight-obesity and cardiometabolic risk factors (CRF) (sedentary lifestyle, dyslipidemia, hypertension and impaired carbohydrate metabolism) in children and adolescents in the city of Mérida, Venezuela, we studied 922 children and adolescents from 9 to 18 years of age, from different educational institutions. Anthropometric measurements and arterial blood pressure were recorded. Body mass index was calculated. Fasting blood glucose, insulin and lipids levels, and glucose and insulin 2 h post-load glucose were measured. HOMA-IR was calculated. In order of frequency, sedentary lifestyle was observed in 49.3% of participants, dyslipidemia in 28.3%, overweight-obesity in 17.4% (7.9% obesity and 9.5% overweight), prehypertension and hypertension (PreHT/HT) in 8.8%, prediabetes in 4%, insulin resistance in 3.9% and metabolic syndrome (MS) in 2.5%. CRF's were associated with overweight-obesity, being the most common, dyslipidemia (50.3% vs 23.7% in normal weight) and PreHT/HT (23.8% vs 5.7%; p=0.0001 for both). The risk of PreHT/HT, dyslipidemia, and MS were 5.14, 3.26 and 119.56 times more in overweight-obesity, than in low-normal weight respectively (p=0.0001 for all). In conclusion, the frequency of overweight and obesity in Mérida has increased over time. Given its clear association with CRF, it is recommended to provide the appropriated education to improve nutritional status.

Síndrome metabólico en escolares y adolescentes de la ciudad de Mérida-Venezuela: comparación de resultados utilizando valores de referencia locales e internacionales (estudio CREDEFAR) / Metabolic syndrome in children and adolescents from Mérida city, Venezuela: Comparison of results using local and international reference values (CREDEFAR study)

OBJETIVO: Obtener valores de referencia local de lípidos sanguíneos y presión arterial (PA), y determinar la prevalencia de síndrome metabólico (SM) en escolares y adolescentes de la ciudad de Mérida, Venezuela, y comparar resultados usando puntos de corte propios e internacionales. MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS: Participaron 916 estudiantes de 9 a 18 años de edad, de ambos sexos, provenientes de instituciones educativas. Se obtuvieron datos demográficos, antropométricos y de PA. Se cuantificaron glucemia en ayunas y perfil lipídico. Los valores de los lípidos y la PA se distribuyeron por percentiles (pc), según grupos de edad y sexo. Para el diagnóstico de SM se consideraron 2 clasificaciones, la del NCEP-ATP III-modificada por Cook et al. y la de la Federación Internacional de Diabetes, usando los pc de Mérida y de EE. UU. como puntos de corte. La concordancia entre ambas clasificaciones se estimó con el índice kappa (Κ). RESULTADOS: La prevalencia de SM fue del 2,2% por Cook-pc Mérida, frente al 1,8% por Cook-pc EE. UU., concordancia moderada (Κ =0,54). La concordancia entre Cook et al. e IDF, usando pc Mérida, fue débil (Κ =0,28). Usando los pc Mérida hubo mayor frecuencia de obesidad abdominal, hipertrigliceridemia y PA elevada, y menos de cHDL bajo. El riesgo (odds ratio) de presentar SM es mayor si la obesidad abdominal está presente (OR: 98,63; IC: 22,45-433,35; p = 0,0001). El SM fue significativamente más frecuente en los obesos (18,3%; p = 0,0001). CONCLUSIONES: La prevalencia de SM en esta muestra de niños y adolescentes fue del 2,2%. Los valores de lípidos y de PA fueron más bajos que los norteamericanos, europeos y asiáticos, y similares a los latinoamericanos. Se justifica la obtención de valores propios de referencia para diagnóstico certero de SM, así como un consenso mundial sobre sus criterios diagnósticos

OBJECTIVE: To ascertain the prevalence of obesity and overweight recording in primary care (PC) clinical records. DESIGN: A descriptive, cross-sectional study. SETTING: The study was conducted in three urban, primary care centers in Gipuzkoa. PARTICIPANTS: 620 computerized clinical records randomly selected from a population of 63,820. Patient age older than 14 years was the only inclusion criterion. MAIN MEASUREMENTS: Recording of the clinical episode referring to obesity and/or overweight. Other variables included age, sex, body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, comorbidity (diabetes, hypertension, heart failure, among others), and variability of the record made by healthcare professionals at each center. Statistical analysis included a Chi-square test or a Fisher's test for low frequencies. A value of P<.05 was considered significant. Analysis was performed using SPSS® V.21 software. RESULTS: Prevalence of recorded obesity was 6%, and 78.4% of those with recorded obesity were women. Overweight was recorded in 3% of subjects, of which 33.2% were women. BMI was recorded in 170 cases (27%). At least one comorbidity was found in 241 subjects (39%). Association of BMI with presence of comorbidity was statistically significant (P=.0001). Recording of obesity was associated to presence of comorbidity (P =.0002). CONCLUSIONS: This study confirmed that prevalence of obesity is underestimated, mainly because it is inadequately recorded in clinical histories; that prevalence increases in the presence of other risk factors; and that there is a significant variability in data collection between healthcare professionals

Valores de insulina basal y post carga de glucosa oral, homa-ir y quicki, en niños y adolescentes de la ciudad de Mérida, Venezuela: Influencia del sexo y estadio puberal (estudio credefar)

Objetivo: Obtener valores de insulina basal, post carga de glucosa oral, HOMA-IR y QUICKI, y establecer su relación con el sexo y el estadio puberal en niños y adolescentes sanos del Municipio Libertador de la ciudad de Mérida, Venezuela. Materiales y métodos: Participaron 922 sujetos de 9 a 18 años de instituciones públicas y privadas. Se recogieron datos antropométricos. Se determinaron glucemia e insulina (Quimioluminiscencia) en ayunas y 2 horas post carga de glucosa oral. Se calcularon los índices HOMA-IR y QUICKI. Se realizó la distribución percentilar de las variables por sexo y estadio puberal. Resultados: El 51,6% eran de sexo femenino y el 48,4% masculino; el 52,7% de instituciones públicas y el 47,3% de privadas. El 20,4% era prepúber, el 18,3% se encontró en el estadio II de Tanner, el 11,8% en el III, el 16% en el IV y el 33,4% en estadio puberal V. Los valores de insulina y HOMA-IR fueron mayores en el sexo femenino. Los valores más altos se observaron en los estadios II, III y IV. La insulina 2 horas postcarga mostró sus máximos valores en los estadios IV y V. En nuestra población, se proponen valores altos (>pc95) de insulina en ayunas aquellos mayores de 9 mU/mL en el prepúber y de 12 mU/mL en el púber; de insulina 2 horas postcarga mayores de 35 mU/mL en el prepúber y de 65 mU/mL en el púber; de HOMA-IR mayores de 2 en el prepúber y de 2,5 en el púber. Se consideran disminuidos aquellos valores de QUICKI menores de 0,31 (

Objective: To obtain values of fasting insulin levels and 2 hours post glucose oral test, values of HOMA-IR and QUICKI and its association with sex and pubertal stages in healthy children and adolescents from the Libertador Municipality of Mérida, Venezuela. Material and methods: We evaluated 922 students between 9 to 17,9 years from publics and privates educational institutions. Anthropometric variables were taken. Fasting glucose and insulin and 2 hours post glucose oral test were measured, and the HOMA and QUICKI indexes were calculated. The percentile distribution of the studied variables according to sex and pubertal stages was performed. Results: The 51.6% were female and 48.4% male; 52.7% were from public and 47.3% from private institution. According to Tanner Stages: 20.4% were Tanner I, 18.3% Tanner II, 11.8% Tanner III, 16% Tanner IV and 33.4% were Tanner V. Values of insulin levels and HOMA were higher in female sex. The higher levels were observed in stages II, III and IV. Insulin 2 hours post oral glucose test levels showed the highest values in Tanner stages IV and V. To our population, we propose more than 9 mU/mL as a high value (>pc95) of fasting insulin in the pre-pubertal stage and 12 mU/mL in pubertal stage; insulin 2 hours post glucose oral test higher than 35 mU/mL in the pre-pubertal and 65 mU/mL for the pubertal stage; HOMA-IR higher than 2 in the pre-pubertal and 2.5 in the pubertal stage. QUICKI levels under 0.31 (

Síndrome de pendred: A propósito de un caso

Objetivo: Presentar caso clínico de Síndrome de Pendred, patología poco frecuente en la edad pediátrica que engloba sordera congénita y bocio. Caso clínico: Preescolar femenina de 5 años y 4 meses, cuya madre refiere enfermedad actual de 3 meses de evolución caracterizada por presentar aumento progresivo de volumen en cara anterior de cuello, sin cambios de coloración, ni temperatura, no doloroso, concomitantemente somnolencia, estreñimiento e hipoactividad. Examen Físico: Peso 14,700 Kg (

Objective: To present a clinical case of Pendred syndrome, a rare pathology in children that includes congenital deafness and goiter. Clinical case: Preschool female 5 years and 4 months of age, whose mother refers disease of 3 months of evolution characterized by progressive increase in volume of the anterior neck, without redness, heat, or pain; concomitantly drowsiness, constipation and hypoactivity. Physical Examination: Weight 14.700 Kg (

Manejo de pacientes con hipoparatiroidismo: Guías clínicas del Servicio de Endocrinología del Instituto Autónomo Hospital Universitario de Los Andes

El hipoparatiroidismo es una enfermedad endocrina poco común que se caracteriza por niveles bajos de calcio sérico, niveles altos de fosfato sérico y niveles inapropiadamente bajos o ausentes de hormona paratiroidea (PTH) en la circulación. La enfermedad puede aparecer como una patología aislada o en asociación con otra patología. Usualmente la enfermedad es de tipo hereditaria, aunque la causa más común en el adulto es el hipoparatiroidismo adquirido postquirúrgico. La mayoría de los pacientes se presentan con síntomas como parestesias, calambres o tetania, pero eventualmente también podría manifestarse como convulsiones, broncoespasmo, laringoespasmo o arritmias cardiacas. Es importante identificar si la hipocalcemia está asociada o no con un nivel sérico ausente o inapropiadamente bajo de PTH (hipoparatiroidismo) o si la hipocalcemia está asociada con el correspondiente aumento compensatorio de dicha hormona. La anamnesis, las características fenotípicas, la evaluación radiológica y el apropiado perfil bioquímico son determinantes para realizar un diagnóstico correcto. La hipocalcemia sintomática puede ser una emergencia médica que requiera la administración aguda vía endovenosa de calcio. La meta terapéutica principal del manejo crónico incluye mantener en un rango aceptable los niveles de calcio sérico, fosforo sérico y la excreción urinaria de calcio en 24 horas.

Hypoparathyroidism is an uncommon endocrine deficiency disease characterized by low serum calcium levels, elevated serum phosphorus levels, and absent or inappropriately low levels of parathyroid hormone (PTH) in the circulation. The disease may appear as an isolated disorder or in association with other organ defects. Usually the disease is identifiable as hereditary, although the most common acquired cause of hypoparathyroidism in adults is postsurgical. Patients with hypoparathyroidism most often present with paresthesia, cramps, or tetany, but the disorder may also manifest acutely with seizures, bronchospasm, laryngospasm, or cardiac rhythm disturbances. The major general distinction to be made is whether the hypocalcemia is associated with an absent or inappropriately low serum PTH concentration (hypoparathyroidism) or whether the hypocalcemia is associated with an appropriate compensatory increase in PTH. The anamnesis, phenotypical features, radiology evaluation and some biochemical profiles are determinant in an appropriate diagnosis. Symptomatic hypocalcemia can be a medical emergency requiring acute intravenous administration of calcium. The primary goals of chronic management include maintaining within an acceptable range the following indexes: serum total calcium, serum phosphorus and 24-h urine calcium excretion.

Metabolic syndrome in children and adolescents from Mérida city, Venezuela: Comparison of results using local and international reference values (CREDEFAR study).

OBJECTIVE: To obtain local reference values for blood lipids and blood pressure (BP), and to determine the prevalence of metabolic syndrome (MS) in children and adolescents from Mérida, Venezuela, and to compare results using local and international cut-off values. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study enrolled 916 participants of both sexes aged 9-18 years of age from educational institutions. Demographic, anthropometric, and BP data were collected. Fasting blood glucose and lipid profile were measured. Percentile distribution of lipid and BP values was done by age group and sex. Prevalence of MS was estimated based on the NCEP-ATPIII classification (as modified by Cook et al.) and the classification of the International Diabetes Federation, using percentiles of Mérida and the USA as cut-off points. Agreement between both classifications was estimated using the kappa test (κ). RESULTS: Prevalence of MS was 2.2% by Cook-Merida percentiles, as compared to 1.8% by Cook-USA percentiles, a moderate agreement (κ=0.54). Agreement between Cook et al. and IDF using Merida percentiles was weak (κ=0.28). There was a higher frequency of abdominal obesity, hypertriglyceridemia and hypertension, and a lower frequency of low HDL-C using Mérida percentiles. The risk (odds ratio) of having MS is greater if abdominal obesity exists (OR: 98.63, CI: 22.45-433.35, p=0.0001). MS was significantly more common in obese subjects (18.3%, p=0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: Prevalence of MS in this sample of children and adolescents was 2.2%. Lipid and BP values were lower in Venezuelan as compared to US, European, and Asian children and adolescents, and similar to those in Latin-American references. Own reference values are required for accurate diagnosis of MS, as well as a worldwide consensus on its diagnostic criteria.

Manejo de la hiperglucemia en el paciente hospitalizado con diabetes mellitus

La hiperglucemia es un hallazgo frecuente en los pacientes hospitalizados. Está presente en el 40% de los pacientes críticamente enfermos. El paciente con Diabetes Mellitus tipo 2 (DM2) representa el 30% de ellos. En pacientes tratados con insulina se consideran valores seguros de glucemia pre-comidas aquellos alrededor a 140 mg/dL, y casuales menores a 180 mg/dL. Los valores de glucemia entre 110 y 140 mg/dL son recomendados en pacientes con menor riesgo de hipoglucemia. Al hospitalizarse un paciente diabético, se debe calcular de 1,5 a 2 veces la dosis previa de insulina, y en aquellos con hipoglucemiantes orales o debutantes, pueden usarse dosis de insulina a 0,3-0,5 UI/Kg/día. El esquema debe ser individualizado, y se recomienda el que incluye insulina basal (intermedia o lenta), preprandial (rápida) y de corrección (rápida). Se presenta el protocolo que se usa en nuestra Unidad de Endocrinología.

Hyperglycemia is a common finding in hospitalized patients. It is present in 40% of critically ill patients. Patients with type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) accounts for 30% of them. The pre-meal glucose levels regarded as safe in patients treated with insulin are those around 140 mg/dL, and casual levels less than 180 mg/dL. Blood glucose levels between 110 and 140 mg/dL are recommended in patients with lower risk of hypoglycemia. When a diabetic patient is hospitalized, calculate 1.5 to 2 times the previous dose of insulin, and in those with oral hypoglycemic agents (OHA) or in debut, the insulin doses may be used at 0.3-0.5 IU/kg/day. The scheme must be individualized, and the use of basal insulin (intermediate or slow), preprandial (fast) and correction (fast) is recommended. The protocol used in our Endocrinology Unit is presented.

Respuesta a Carta a: Valores de referencia de la circunferencia de la cintura e índice de la cintura/cadera en escolares y adolescentes de Mérida, Venezuela: comparación con referencias internacionales / Reply to Letter to: Reference values of waist circumference and waist/hip ratio in children and adolescents of Mérida, Venezuela: Comparison with international references

No disponible

Guía práctica para el diagnóstico y tratamiento del nódulo tiroideo: Protocolo del servicio de endocrinología del Instituto Autónomo hospital Universitario de los Andes

La prevalencia del nódulo tiroideo en la población general es de 2 a 7% por palpación y de 19 a 76% por ultrasonido. Su incidencia es más alta con la edad, en personas provenientes de áreas con deficiencia de yodo, en mujeres, y después de exposición a radiación. La importancia del estudio del nódulo tiroideo radica en la necesidad de excluir cáncer, por lo cual, todo nódulo tiroideo >1cm debe ser evaluado. Los nódulos <1cm serán sospechosos cuando se encuentren asociados a factores de riesgo y en presencia de hallazgos ultrasonográficos sugestivos de malignidad. La clasificación TIRADS, basada en la ecogenicidad, calcificaciones, vascularización y estructura del nódulo por Ultrasonido Tiroideo (US), se usa para definir a cuales nódulos se les debe realizar la punción y aspiración con aguja fina (PAAF) para obtener citología diagnóstica. La evaluación citológica por PAAF, se considera en la actualidad el mejor método para distinguir entre nódulo tiroideo benigno y maligno. El tratamiento para los nódulos con resultado citológico benigno es el seguimiento clínico y ultrasonográfico, debiéndose repetir PAAF si existe aumento del tamaño del nódulo. En nódulos con PAAF maligna la conducta siempre será quirúrgica y se recomienda la tiroidectomía total en todos los casos. Se presenta el protocolo del Servicio de Endocrinología del IAHULA para el diagnóstico y tratamiento del nódulo tiroideo.

Prevalence of thyroid nodules found by routine medical exam is 2-7% and by ultrasound 19-76%. Their incidence increases in women, ageing, after radiation exposure and in locations of iodine deficiency. The importance of studying thyroid nodules is to exclude cancer. Therefore, all nodules >1cm must be evaluated. However, nodules <1cm will be suspicious when they are associated with risk factors or there are ultrasound findings suggestive of malignancy. The nodules classification by ultrasound (TIRADS) based on echogenicity, calcifications, irrigation and nodule structure is used to determine when to perform a fine needle aspiration biopsy (FNAB). Currently, study of cells obtained by FNAB is the best method to distinguish between benign and malignant nodules. Treatment for benign nodules is follow up by physical and ultrasound examination, and repeat FNAB if nodule size increases. Treatment for all malignant nodules is surgery, total thyroidectomy is recommended. We present the guidelines for the diagnostic and management of patients with thyroid nodules in the Endocrinology Department of IAHULA.

Reference values of waist circumference and waist/hip ratio in children and adolescents of Mérida, Venezuela: comparison with international references.

OBJECTIVE: To collect regional reference values of waist circumference (WC), and waist/hip ratio (WHR) in children and adolescents from Merida, Venezuela, and to compare them to international references. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: A total of 919 students aged 9-17 years from public and private educational establishments were assessed. Weight, height, WC, and WHR were measured. Outliers (± 3 SD Z-Score) were excluded from the data collected. Percentile distribution of the tested variables was done by age and sex. RESULTS: Fifty-one percent of subjects were female, and 52.7% were from public institutions. WC (p=0.001) and WHR (p=0.0001) were statistically higher in boys. With advancing age, WC increased in both sexes, while WHR showed the opposite behavior (p=0.0001 for both). The 90th percentile (pc) for WC ranged from 69.7 and 83.6 cm in girls and from 69.2 and 86.7 cm in boys. The 90th pc values of WHR ranged from 0.79 and 0.91 in girls and from 0.86 and 0.93 in boys. Overall, our WC and WHR values were lower than North American values and similar to those of some Latin American references. CONCLUSION: Percentile reference charts for WC and WHR specific for age and sex, obtained from a representative sample of children and adolescents from Mérida, Venezuela, are provided. They may be used regionally, both for individual assessment and to implement prevention policies.

Diagnóstico y manejo de la hiperprolactinemia

La Prolactina (PRL) es una hormona de naturaleza proteica sintetizada y secretada en la hipófisis anterior. Esta hormona presenta un amplio espectro de acciones biológicas siendo su principal función la estimulación de la glándula mamaria durante la lactancia. La hiperprolactinemia es el desorden hormonal hipofisario observado con mayor frecuencia en la práctica clínica. Existen condiciones fisiológicas y patológicas que pueden producir una elevación de la PRL. Las causas patológicas incluyen condiciones propias de la adenohipófisis, alteración de la conexión hipotálamo/hipofisaria y desórdenes sistémicos que condicionan un aumento en las concentraciones séricas de PRL. Los Prolactinomas constituyen el tumor pituitario más común y una de las principales causas de hiperprolactinemia. La causa más frecuente de hiperprolactinemia de origen no tumoral se debe al uso de fármacos en especial los neurolépticos/antipsicóticos. La galactorrea y la disfunción en la esfera reproductiva constituyen los marcadores clínicos de la hiperprolactinemia no fisiológica, sin embargo, un grupo de pacientes puede permanecer asintomático. Dependiendo de la causa y las consecuencias de la hiperprolactinemia un grupo de pacientes requerirá tratamiento. La causa desencadenante, edad, sexo y etapa reproductiva deben ser considerados al momento de la elección de la opción terapéutica. En el presente artículo, basados en niveles de evidencia científica y la experiencia clínica de la Unidad de Endocrinología del IAHULA, se describe el enfoque diagnóstico y terapéutico de esta alteración en diferentes grupos clínicos.

Prolactin is a proteic hormone which is synthetized and secreted by the anterior hypophysis. This hormone has a broad spectrum of biological actions, but its main fuction is to stimulate mammary glands to induce milk production. Hyperprolactinemia is a hypohysis disorder which is frequently observed in the clinical practice. There are physiologic and pathologic conditions associated with the elevated production of PRL. The most common causes for pathological conditions include defects in the gland, alterations in the hypophysis/ hypothalamus conections and systemic disorders which precipitate elevated levels of serum PRL. The most frequent cause of non-tumoral hyperprolactinemia is due to medication side effects, specially antipsychotics and neuroleptic drugs. Galactorrhea and dysfunction of the reproductive axis are the main clinical markers of non- physiologic hyperprolactinemia, yet most patients may be asymtomatic. According to the cause and the clinical consequences some patients will require treatment for hyperprolactinemia. The triggering conditions, such as age, gender, and reproductive stage, must be taken into account when treatment is being considered. The present article, based on levels of scientific evidence and clinical experience in the Unit of Endocrinology, IAHULA, describes the diagnostic and therapeutic approach needed to handle such cases.

[Obesity in schoolchildren from Merida, Venezuela: association with cardiovascular risk factors]. / Obesidad en escolares de Mérida, Venezuela: asociación con factores de riesgo cardiovascular.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the prevalence of obesity and associated cardiovascular risk factors in schoolchildren in our city, given the influence of these factors on the development of atherosclerosis. METHODS: We studied a representative sample of second grade students composed of 370 children aged 7.82+/-0.62 years (47.8% girls and 52.2% boys); 52.4% were from public schools and 47.6% were from private schools. Surveys were performed and anthropometric measurements, blood pressure (BP) values and glucose and lipid profiles in capillary blood were determined. RESULTS: A total of 9.7% (36 schoolchildren) were obese and 13.8% were overweight. There were no differences according to sex or school system. Abdominal obesity was observed in 69.4% (p<0.0001), normal-high BP (90-97th percentile) in 27.8% (p<0.0001), dyslipidemia in 66.7% (p<0.05) and metabolic syndrome in 38.9% (p<0.0001) of the obese children compared with 1.3%, 5.1%, 48.9% and 0.4% of the children with normal weight, respectively. No association was found between fasting hyperglycemia and obesity. There were no cases of hypertension or diabetes mellitus. The risk (odds ratio) for normal-high BP, dyslipidemia, abdominal obesity and metabolic syndrome was 6.3, 2.2, 60.9, and 70.2 times higher in obese children than in non-obese children, respectively. A positive and significant correlation was found between waist circumference and body mass index with BP and the atherogenic indexes triglycerides/high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), total cholesterol/HDL-C and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol/HDL-C (p=0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: Compared with cities in other countries, the city of Mérida, Venezuela, has an intermediate prevalence of overweight and obesity in schoolchildren. The high frequency of cardiovascular risk factors in the obese and its positive correlation with adiposity highlights the need to implement population-based strategies for its prevention in childhood.

Obesidad en escolares de Mérida, Venezuela: asociación con factores de riesgo cardiovascular / Obesity in schoolchildren in Merida, Venezuela: association with cardiovascular risk factors

Objetivo: Investigar la frecuencia de obesidad y factores de riesgo cardiovascular asociados a ella en escolares de nuestra ciudad, dada su influencia en el desarrollo de arteriosclerosis. Métodos: Se estudió una muestra representativa de escolares cursantes del segundo grado, conformada por 370 niños, de 7,82 ± 0,62 años (el 47,8% mujeres y el 52,2% varones; el 52,4% proveniente de institutos públicos y el 47,6%, de privados). Se aplicaron encuestas y se realizaron las medidas antropométricas, la toma de presión arterial (PA) y la determinación de la glucemia y el lipidograma en sangre capilar. Resultados: El 9,7% (36 escolares) presentó obesidad y el 13,8%, sobrepeso. No hubo diferencias en cuanto a sexo o plantel educativo. Se observó obesidad abdominal en el 69,4% (p < 0,0001), PA normal-alta (percentil 90-97) en el 27,8% (p < 0,0001), dislipemia en el 66,7% (p < 0,05) y síndrome metabólico (SM) en el 38,9% (p < 0,0001) de los niños obesos, frente al 1,3, el 5,1, el 48,9 y el 0,4% de los niños en normopeso, respectivamente. La hiperglucemia en ayunas no se encontró asociada a la obesidad. No hubo casos de hipertensión arterial ni de diabetes mellitus. La probabilidad de presentar PA normal-alta en el obeso fue 6,3 veces mayor que en el no obeso (riesgo relativo indirecto u odds ratio); la de dislipemia fue 2,2 veces mayor; la de obesidad abdominal, 60,9 veces mayor y la de SM, 70,2 veces mayor. Hubo correlación positiva y significativa entre la circunferencia abdominal y el índice de masa corporal con la PA y con los índices aterogénicos triglicéridos/colesterol de las lipoproteínas de alta densidad (cHDL), colesterol total/cHDL y colesterol de las lipoproteínas de baja densidad/cHDL (p = 0,0001) Conclusiones:En la ciudad de Mérida, Venezuela, respecto a ciudades de otros países, hay una prevalencia intermedia de sobrepeso y obesidad en escolares. La alta frecuencia de factores de riesgo cardiovascular en los obesos y su correlación positiva con la adiposidad enfatizan la necesidad de implementar estrategias poblacionales para su prevención en la edad infantil(AU)

Objective: To investigate the prevalence of obesity and associated cardiovascular risk factors in schoolchildren in our city, given the influence of these factors on the development of atherosclerosis. Methods: We studied a representative sample of second grade students composed of 370 children aged 7.82 ± 0.62 years (47.8% girls and 52.2% boys); 52.4% were from public schools and 47.6% were from private schools. Surveys were performed and anthropometric measurements, blood pressure (BP) values and glucose and lipid profiles in capillary blood were determined. Results A total of 9.7% (36 schoolchildren) were obese and 13.8% were overweight. There were no differences according to sex or school system. Abdominal obesity was observed in 69.4% (p < 0.0001), normal-high BP (90-97th percentile) in 27.8% (p < 0.0001), dyslipidemia in 66.7% (p < 0.05) and metabolic syndrome in 38.9% (p < 0.0001) of the obese children compared with 1.3%, 5.1%, 48.9% and 0.4% of the children with normal weight, respectively. No association was found between fasting hyperglycemia and obesity. There were no cases of hypertension or diabetes mellitus. The risk (odds ratio) for normal-high BP, dyslipidemia, abdominal obesity and metabolic syndrome was 6.3, 2.2, 60.9, and 70.2 times higher in obese children than in non-obese children, respectively. A positive and significant correlation was found between waist circumference and body mass index with BP and the atherogenic indexes triglycerides/high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), total cholesterol/HDL-C and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol/HDL-C (p = 0.0001). Conclusions: Compared with cities in other countries, the city of Mérida, Venezuela, has an intermediate prevalence of overweight and obesity in schoolchildren. The high frequency of cardiovascular risk factors in the obese and its positive correlation with adiposity highlights the need to implement population-based strategies for its prevention in childhood (AU)

Panhipopituitarismo secundario a macroadenoma hipofisario no funcionante en la adolescencia

Objetivo: Presentar el caso poco frecuente de una adolescente con un macroadenoma hipofisario no funcionante que le produjo un hipopituitarismo. Se hace una revisión de la literatura. Caso Clínico: Adolescente femenina de 16 años 2 meses de edad quien presenta poco progreso en talla y ausencia de caracteres sexuales secundarios; refiere concomitantemente cefaleas ocasionales. Al examen físico presenta talla y peso por debajo del pc 3, velocidad de crecimiento 2,8 cm/año, cubitus valgus, paladar ojival, cuarto metacarpiano corto, no tiromegalia. Genitales, mamas, vello axilar y púbico Tanner I. Se hace diagnóstico de talla baja patológica y retraso puberal y se indican exámenes de paraclínicos. Los resultados de laboratorio muestran un déficit de hormona de crecimiento (GH) y un hipocortisolismo, con función tiroidea conservada. Edad ósea de 11 años para una edad cronológica de 15 años. Cariotipo 46,XX. Rx lateral de cráneo muestra silla turca amplia y excavada. Us pélvico: útero en anteversion, central, con longitud de 20 mm; no se visualizan línea endometrial ni ovarios. La RMN muestra el piso de la región selar deformado, excavado, con imagen compatible con LOE de contornos más o menos definidos con señal intermedia baja y dishomogénea en T1, con realce hipertenso dishomogéneo tras la administración del medio de contraste, de aproximadamente 2,9 x 1,36 cm. de diámetro, con compromiso de los elementos supraselares, ejerciendo efecto compresivo sobre el infundíbulo el cual deforma el quiasma óptico. Se hace diagnóstico de Panhipopituitarismo secundario a Macroadenoma Hipofisario no Secretante, con Déficit de GH, Hipogonadismo Hipogonadotropo e Insuficiencia Suprarrenal Secundaria (Déficit de ACTH). Se indica tratamiento con hidrocortisona por vía oral. Se refiere para resolución quirúrgica por vía transesfenoidal ya que en nuestro centro no se realiza. Se desconoce el reporte histológico del tumor y la evolución de la paciente. Conclusiones: Los adenomas hipofisarios representan menos del 2-3% de todos los tumores intracraneales y sus manifestaciones clínicas dependen de la suma de un efecto masa, que causa alteraciones neurológicas, y la afectación de la secreción hormonal, ya sea por exceso o por defecto. Es importante realizar un diagnóstico temprano, así como un tratamiento efectivo y seguimiento a largo plazo.

Objective: To present the uncommon case of a teenager with a non-functioning pituitary macroadenoma that resulted in a hypopituitarism. A literature review is done. Case Report: Female adolescent of 16 years 2 months of age who presents little progress in stature and absence of secondary sexual characters; concomitantly refers occasional headaches. Physical examination: height and weight below the 3 pc, growth velocity 2.8 cm/year, cubitus valgus, ojival palate, short fourth metacarpal, no thyroid enlargement. Genitals, breasts, axillary and pubic hair, Tanner I. The diagnosis of pathological short stature and delayed puberty is done and paraclinical examinations are indicated. Laboratory results show a deficit of growth hormone (GH) and a hypocortisolism with preserved thyroid function. Bone age of 11 years for a chronological age of 15 years. Karyotype 46, XX. Rx of the skull shows a wide and excavated sella turcica. Pelvic Us: central uterus, in anteversion, 20 mm in length and the endometrium and ovaries were no visible. NMR shows the floor of the sellar region warped, carved, with a image compatible with tumour of defined contours, with low-intermediate and dishomogenea signal on T1, with hypertensive and heterogeneou enhancement after administration of contrast medium, approximately 2.9 x 1.36 cm. in diameter, with involvement of the supraselares elements exerting compressive effect on the infundibulum, which deforms the optic chiasm. The diagnosis of panhypopituitarism secondary to pituitary non functioning macroadenoma is done, with GH deficiency, hypogonadotropic hypogonadism and secondary adrenal insufficiency (ACTH deficiency). Treatment with oral hydrocortisone is indicated. The patient is referred for resolution by transsphenoidal surgery. The histological report of the tumor and the evolution of the patient are unknown. Conclusions: Pituitary adenomas account for less than 2-3% of all intracranial tumours, and their clinical manifestations depend on the sum of a mass effect, which causes neurological disorders, and the disruption of hormonal secretion, either up or down. It is important to make an early diagnosis, an effective treatment and long-term monitoring.